Jerusalem sits at the heart of one of the world’s longest-running conflicts. The historic city holds deep religious significance for Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike, making the question of ownership particularly complex.
Both Israel and the State of Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital. Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, while most of the international community has not fully recognized this claim.
The city’s status remains highly contested, with different perspectives on who has rightful claim.
While Israel considers Jerusalem its capital city, there is greater international consensus regarding West Jerusalem than East Jerusalem. Palestinians view East Jerusalem as part of their territory, which has been under Israeli occupation since 1967.
East Jerusalem has been under Israeli occupation since 1967, adding another layer to the already complicated situation.
Key Takeaways
- Jerusalem is claimed as the capital by both Israel and Palestine, creating ongoing tension and diplomatic challenges.
- The city holds profound religious and historical significance for multiple faiths, making ownership disputes especially sensitive.
- International law and global opinion remain divided on Jerusalem’s status, with most countries maintaining embassies in Tel Aviv rather than Jerusalem.
Historical Context
Jerusalem’s ownership has been shaped by thousands of years of history, with three major religions claiming deep connections to the city and numerous empires controlling it throughout time.
Ancient Roots and Religious Importance
Jerusalem has ancient origins dating back thousands of years. The city gained prominence around 1000 BCE when King David captured Jerusalem and made it the capital of the united Israelite kingdom. His son Solomon later built the First Temple.
For Judaism, Jerusalem holds special significance as the location of the Temple Mount and Western Wall. These sacred sites represent the center of Jewish spiritual life throughout history.
Christianity values Jerusalem as the place where Jesus taught, was crucified, and resurrected. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks these important Christian events.
Islam considers Jerusalem its third holiest city after Mecca and Medina. Muslims believe Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven from the Temple Mount, now home to the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque.
The three Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—all trace their connection to Jerusalem through Abraham, making the city uniquely important to billions of people worldwide.
Empires and Conquests over Jerusalem
Throughout history, Jerusalem has been ruled by many empires. The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem in 586 BCE, destroying Solomon’s Temple and sending Jews into exile.
Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and various Muslim empires each controlled Jerusalem at different times. The city’s walls and architecture reflect these diverse influences.
During the Crusades (1095-1291), European Christians fought to control the Holy Land. Jerusalem changed hands multiple times between Christian and Muslim forces during this period.
The Ottoman Empire ruled Jerusalem for about 400 years until 1917, when British forces captured the city during World War I. This began a new chapter in Jerusalem’s complex history.
Each ruling power brought different policies regarding religious access to holy sites, which continues to influence today’s tensions over who should control the city.
Jerusalem in the 20th Century
After World War I, the League of Nations established the British Mandate for Palestine, which included Jerusalem. During this period, both Arab and Jewish communities hoped to control the city.
When Israel declared independence in 1948, war broke out immediately. Jordan captured East Jerusalem, including the Old City with its holy sites, while Israel held West Jerusalem. The city remained divided for nearly 20 years.
In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured East Jerusalem and unified the city under Israeli control. Israel later declared Jerusalem its “eternal and indivisible capital,” though this claim is not widely recognized internationally.
The Palestinians, represented by organizations like the PLO, also claim Jerusalem as their capital. Today, both the State of Israel and the State of Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital city.
These competing claims make Jerusalem central to peace negotiations and one of the most complicated ownership disputes in the world.
Legal and Political Status
Jerusalem’s ownership is complicated by overlapping legal claims and political declarations. Both Israelis and Palestinians assert rights to the city based on different legal frameworks and historical understandings.
International Recognition and Disputes
Jerusalem holds a unique legal status under international law. After the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Jerusalem was designated as a “corpus separatum” (separate body) with special international status. This plan envisioned Jerusalem as neither fully Israeli nor Palestinian.
Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv rather than Jerusalem, reflecting reluctance to recognize any party’s exclusive sovereignty over the city. The United Nations has repeatedly passed resolutions that consider East Jerusalem as occupied territory.
The international community largely views Israel’s control over East Jerusalem as temporary until a final peace agreement is reached. This position stems from the prohibition against acquiring territory by force under international law.
Despite these disputes, several countries including the United States have recently recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, though many specify this doesn’t prejudge final status issues.
Israeli Legislative Actions
Israel has taken several legislative steps to solidify its claim over Jerusalem. The most significant was the Jerusalem Law of 1980, which declared “Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel.”
This law effectively annexed East Jerusalem, which Israel had captured in the 1967 Six-Day War. The Israeli government considers this annexation permanent and non-negotiable.
Israeli law provides for freedom of access to holy sites for all religions. However, security measures often restrict Palestinian access to religious sites.
The Israeli Supreme Court has upheld various aspects of Israel’s control over the city while occasionally limiting government actions regarding Palestinian residents.
Israeli citizenship is available to East Jerusalem Palestinians, though most choose permanent residency status instead. This creates a complex legal situation where many residents are not citizens of the country that controls their city.
The Palestinian Perspective
Palestinians view East Jerusalem as the rightful capital of their future state. The Palestinian Authority includes Jerusalem in its basic laws as the capital of Palestine.
Palestinian claims to Jerusalem are based on historical presence, religious significance, and international law principles regarding occupied territories. They argue that Israel’s annexation of East Jerusalem violates numerous UN resolutions.
The Palestinian position emphasizes that the eastern part of Jerusalem, including the Old City with its holy sites, must be under Palestinian sovereignty in any final peace agreement.
Palestinian residents of East Jerusalem face unique legal challenges. Most hold Jordanian passports and Israeli permanent residency cards rather than citizenship in either country. Their residency status can be revoked under certain conditions.
Palestinian institutions in East Jerusalem operate under restrictions, and there are ongoing disputes over housing, building permits, and development rights in Palestinian neighborhoods.
Geopolitical Dynamics
Jerusalem sits at the center of competing claims and international interests. The city’s status affects regional stability and shapes relationships between various actors in the Middle East.
East Jerusalem and the Palestinian Community
East Jerusalem remains a key area of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. After 1967, Israel took control of East Jerusalem, an area previously held by Jordan. Palestinians consider East Jerusalem the capital of their future state.
Today, approximately 350,000 Palestinians live in East Jerusalem under complex circumstances. They hold “permanent resident” status rather than citizenship, creating unique legal challenges.
Many Palestinian neighborhoods face issues with infrastructure development and building permits. Areas like Silwan and Sheikh Jarrah have become focal points for disputes over property rights and demographics.
The Al-Aqsa Mosque compound (Temple Mount to Jews) in East Jerusalem creates additional tensions. This holy site attracts worshippers and visitors but also sparks geopolitical balance struggles between religious and national identities.
West Bank and Gaza Strip Relations
Jerusalem’s status directly impacts Palestinians in both the West Bank and Gaza Strip. West Bank Palestinians face travel restrictions to Jerusalem, often requiring special permits to enter the city for work, prayer, or family visits.
The separation barrier built by Israel further complicates movement between Jerusalem and West Bank areas like Bethlehem and Ramallah. This physical division has economic and social consequences for Palestinian communities.
Gaza’s isolation creates an even more distant relationship with Jerusalem. Gazans rarely receive permits to visit the holy city, disconnecting them from this cultural and religious center.
Jerusalem serves as a powerful symbol for Palestinians across all territories. Despite physical separation, the city remains central to Palestinian national identity and aspirations for sovereignty.
Role of Neighboring Countries in the Conflict
Jordan holds special status regarding Jerusalem through its historical role as custodian of the Muslim and Christian holy sites. This arrangement continued even after Israel gained control of East Jerusalem. Jordan’s peace treaty with Israel includes provisions about Jerusalem’s holy places.
Egypt, as a key regional power, plays a diplomatic role in Jerusalem discussions. Egyptian leaders have consistently supported Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem while maintaining relations with Israel.
Other Arab states have recently shifted positions on Jerusalem through agreements like the Abraham Accords. These newer diplomatic relationships complicate traditional regional solidarity on Jerusalem’s status.
International players beyond the Middle East also influence Jerusalem’s situation. The United States made a significant move in 2017 by recognizing Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, breaking with decades of international policy.
Turkey and Iran often voice strong support for Palestinian claims to Jerusalem, using the issue to build regional influence and solidarity.
Conflict and Peace Efforts
Jerusalem’s status remains at the heart of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The city has witnessed numerous peace initiatives and challenging periods of violence, with both Israelis and Palestinians claiming it as their capital.
Milestones in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
The conflict over Jerusalem intensified after the 1967 Six-Day War when Israel gained control of East Jerusalem from Jordan. This dramatically changed the city’s status.
In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, formally annexing East Jerusalem. The move was largely rejected by the international community. The United Nations doesn’t recognize this annexation and considers East Jerusalem occupied territory.
The First Intifada (1987-1993) and Second Intifada (2000-2005) both included violence centered around Jerusalem’s holy sites. The city’s religious significance to both peoples has often turned political tensions into violent confrontations.
Hamas, which controls Gaza, has repeatedly called for Jerusalem to be Palestine’s capital, creating further complications in peace negotiations.
Peace Initiatives and International Mediation
The Oslo Accords (1993-1995) between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) postponed Jerusalem’s final status to later negotiations. This reflected the extreme difficulty in resolving this issue.
The Camp David Summit (2000) saw detailed discussions about dividing Jerusalem, but ultimately failed. The proposal included Palestinian sovereignty over Arab neighborhoods in East Jerusalem but kept the Old City under Israeli control.
The United Nations has consistently supported a two-state solution with East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state. However, implementation remains elusive.
International mediators often suggest creative solutions like shared sovereignty or international administration of holy sites, but these haven’t gained sufficient support.
Ongoing Challenges and the Future of Jerusalem
The Green Line that once divided Jerusalem remains psychologically important, though physically blurred by decades of Israeli construction. Palestinian communities in East Jerusalem face challenges including limited building permits and residency issues.
President Mahmoud Abbas and the Palestinian Authority continue to insist on East Jerusalem as their future capital. Meanwhile, Israel maintains that Jerusalem will remain its “united capital.”
The Trump administration’s 2018 decision to move the U.S. embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem sparked controversy and protests across the Levant.
Grassroots peace initiatives, including work by organizations like the Palestine Children’s Relief Fund, continue despite political deadlocks. These efforts focus on building human connections across the divide.
Social and Cultural Impact
Jerusalem’s complex social fabric is deeply intertwined with its historical significance and religious importance to multiple faiths. The city serves as a meeting point of cultures, religions, and identities that shape daily life and interactions among diverse communities.
Religious Significance and Sacred Sites
Jerusalem contains some of the most sacred sites for three major world religions. The Temple Mount stands as the holiest site in Judaism, where the First and Second Temples once stood. Today, Jews pray at the Western Wall (Kotel), the last remaining structure of the Second Temple complex.
For Muslims, the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque make up the third holiest site in Islam. The Dome’s golden roof is Jerusalem’s most recognizable landmark, built where Muslims believe Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven.
Christians revere Jerusalem as the place of Jesus’s crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre draws millions of pilgrims annually.
These sacred spaces exist in close proximity, sometimes causing tension but also creating unique opportunities for interfaith dialogue.
Population Dynamics and Demographics
Jerusalem’s population reflects its divided history and contested status. Jewish residents make up about 60% of the city’s population, with a significant portion being Haredi (ultra-Orthodox).
Palestinian Arabs, primarily Muslims but including Christians, constitute most of the remaining population. They mainly live in East Jerusalem neighborhoods.
Various international communities, including diplomats, religious officials, and students, add to the city’s diversity.
Demographic patterns follow historical divisions, with most Jews living in West Jerusalem and newer neighborhoods in the east, while Palestinians predominantly reside in East Jerusalem.
Birth rates, housing policies, and political tensions continue to shape Jerusalem’s demographic landscape and neighborhood development.
Cultural Heritage and Interfaith Relations
Jerusalem’s cultural landscape reflects thousands of years of diverse influences, from Hellenistic to Ottoman and modern periods. This creates a rich but complicated heritage environment.
The Old City’s four quarters—Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian—showcase distinctive architectural styles, cuisines, and cultural practices existing side by side.
Interfaith initiatives bring communities together through:
- Joint cultural festivals and artistic collaborations
- Educational programs promoting mutual understanding
- Shared environmental and civic projects
Daily life often involves practical cooperation across religious lines, with markets, hospitals, and public spaces serving as meeting grounds.
Despite ongoing tensions, many Jerusalemites maintain respectful relationships across religious and ethnic boundaries, preserving the city’s unique cultural mosaic.
Contemporary Issues and Developments
Jerusalem remains at the center of ongoing political tensions and diplomatic challenges in the Middle East. The city faces complex issues involving territorial claims, demographics, and its spiritual significance to multiple faiths.
Israeli Settlements and International Viewpoints
Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem and surrounding areas continue to expand despite international criticism. Many countries view these settlements as illegal under international law, creating obstacles to peace negotiations.
The construction of the Separation Wall after the Second Intifada dramatically changed Jerusalem’s landscape. This barrier has separated Palestinian neighborhoods and restricted movement for many residents.
Former Prime Minister Ariel Sharon’s controversial visit to the Temple Mount in 2000 is often cited as a catalyst for increased tensions. Since then, settlement blocs have grown substantially, changing Jerusalem’s demographics.
The Israeli government maintains these areas are part of “united Jerusalem,” their capital. However, the United Nations and most countries do not recognize this claim and maintain embassies in Tel Aviv instead.
Palestinian Community Challenges
Palestinian residents in East Jerusalem face numerous difficulties in daily life. Many live with uncertain legal status, limited access to municipal services, and housing insecurity.
Building permits are extremely difficult for Palestinians to obtain, leading to unauthorized construction. This often results in home demolitions by Israeli authorities, displacing families and creating humanitarian concerns.
Palestinian neighborhoods like Silwan and Sheikh Jarrah have become flashpoints for eviction disputes. These areas see frequent protests as Palestinian families fight legal battles to remain in homes they’ve occupied for generations.
Access to holy sites remains restricted for many Palestinians from the West Bank. The military occupation impacts freedom of movement, with checkpoints and barriers making travel difficult even for medical or educational purposes.
Jerusalem’s Strategic Importance in the Region
Jerusalem has critical strategic value due to its geographic position. The city connects to vital transportation routes and serves as a gateway between different regions.
Water resources near Jerusalem, including access to the Dead Sea and underground aquifers, add to its importance. Control of these resources influences power dynamics throughout the region.
Jerusalem’s prominence extends beyond physical resources to symbolic power. As a religious center for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, control of the city provides significant political leverage in regional negotiations.
The question of boundaries remains contentious. There’s no clear agreement on how Jerusalem might be divided or shared. This makes it one of the most challenging final status issues in any peace process aimed at resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
